Current World Environment

Introduction

During the past few months, the term ‘Coronavirus’ has probably attained the distinction of being one of the most if not the most deliberated matters of concern throughout the world primarily due to the severity and magnitude of deaths and health-related problems it has caused. Coronavirus was first described by Tyrell et al.¹ who were able to cultivate the viruses from patients with the common cold in 1965. The term 'Corona' means 'Crown' in Latin and the virus was so named because of its identified morphology of spherical virions with core-shell and spike projections on the surface², which essentially resembled a crown³. As per Ma et al.⁴, coronaviruses are enveloped RNA viruses that are broadly distributed among mammals, humans, and birds with the potential to cause respiratory, neurologic, hepatic, and enteric diseases. 

A novel coronavirus (nCoV) is a term used for a form of the virus that has been newly identified and was not detected in mankind earlier ⁵. The newest strain of coronavirus was first reported in Wuhan of Hubei Province in China in December 2019. Although initially reported as an acute respiratory infection with an unidentified origin⁶, a careful examination of the respiratory samples of this infection revealed clinical features similar to viral pneumonia⁷. Subsequent investigations led the experts at PRC Centre for Disease Control to conclude that the pneumonia was effectuated by a novel coronavirus and the infection was hence named Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia (NCP). This new virus strain was officially named SARS-CoV-2 while the World Health Organization termed it ‘Corona Virus Disease 2019’ or ‘COVID-19’⁸ and declared its outbreak as a pandemic on March 11, 2020.

As it was a new strain with little existing knowledge about it, it became imperative to find out about its origin which could then serve as the starting point for all subsequent research and contact tracing. In the pursuit to know the source of the spread, it was revealed in a study based on genome sequences that SARS-CoV-2 is closely related to BatCoV RaTG13 (a bat coronavirus that was previously detected in Rhinolophus affinis in Yunnan Province, China)⁹. This view was supported by Velavan et al.² who pointed out that SARS-CoV-2 whose whole genome level is more than 95% similar to a coronavirus detected in bats, was seemingly successful in making the initial animal-to-human transition in the Huanan seafood market in Wuhan, China where live animals were sold. However, it became evident by further investigations that some people contracted the virus despite no record of their visits to the seafood market and this observation implied the human-to-human transmission capability of this novel coronavirus which was evidenced by subsequent reporting of such cases in more than 100 countries. The spread or transmission of the virus between humans took place as a result of close contact or exposure to cough, sneeze, respiratory droplets, or aerosols of the infected person^10,11. Despite these findings, the origin of the virus remains a controversial issue to date as some other studies have suggested differently that the virus originated from ant eaters or pangolins¹². Thus further investigation is needed to confirm the source and origin of the virus.

When the first and arguably the most lethal wave of Covid-19 established its presence in almost all continents as shown by the region-wise number of weekly cases and deaths in Figure 1, its profound impact was felt in almost every sphere of human life including economy, business and education but most significantly in the two fields of healthcare and environment. Within a fortnight of the advent of the first wave in most countries, the healthcare sector was burdened with such an enormous number of Covid-19 cases and deaths that it had neither expected to witness nor was capable of handling simultaneously. According to the region-wise data released by W.H.O.¹³, more than 37 million confirmed cases of Covid-19 were reported worldwide out of which about 1 million cases resulted in deaths during the period ranging from 31 December 2019 to 11 October 2020 (which roughly coincides with the first wave period in different countries taken together). During this period, the intensity of the spread in India was so high that out of the total 7911036 cases reported in South-East Asia, India alone accounted for 7053806 cases. These were whopping numbers that even the most sophisticated healthcare sectors around the world never anticipated or prepared to encounter simultaneously and therefore this led to the breakdown of healthcare systems even in some prominent countries.

Figure 1: Region wise weekly report of Covid-19 cases and deaths from 30/12/2019 to 11/10/2020   Click here to view Figure

Source: W.H.O.¹³ 

In order to break the chain of the spread of this virus and given its potential to cause irreparable devastation, the authorities and governments around the world were forced to enforce lockdowns and shut down all activities to counter its spread and limit the number of new cases and deaths. Of all the negatives the virus caused, one major positive that came out of these pandemic-induced lockdowns was seen on the environmental front in the form of much-needed cutbacks on the pollution and contamination of the environment. The pollution levels which over the past few decades were dangerously breaching extremely high levels significantly dropped during the first wave. Nature started to reassert itself with the drop in the air and water pollution levels and various kinds of lockdowns and shutdowns imposed started proving to be quite successful not only in breaking the chain of infection but also in the vital healing of the ecosystems and the environment^14,15,16. As a result, although the coronavirus pandemic led to a significant loss to humans and families around the world, apparently it also resulted in catalyzing a desirable ‘Green Environmental Effect’ during the first wave which is reviewed in this paper from an Indian perspective. The drawback or flip side of the coin is also taken up in this study, which is the detrimental environmental impact of Covid-19 that was also quite evident as the use of cleansing and sanitizing materials multiplied manifold which extensively burdened the limited ecological resources. Given the scenario, this study finally concludes with a brief discussion of future environmental challenges and recommends possible solutions.

The Green Effect of Covid-19

As humanity was forced to retreat indoors due to the imminent danger posed by the coronavirus, the natural environment and its components seem to have been liberated from the cages of humanity-induced pollution. The various water bodies which notoriously became dirty looked cleaner, with the haze dispersed and smog gone the air felt fresher and easier to breathe and the wildlife seemed reasserted with less trespassing of the humans. Ghosh et al.¹⁷ suggest that the environment is probably the only sector that has benefitted from this Covid-19 situation. It seems like the natural environment which we have exploited extensively over the past few years is benefiting from our absence. In the following sections, we have attempted to discuss some of the most obvious positive impacts or the ‘Green Effect’ of the coronavirus pandemic-induced lockdowns on the quality of the environment based on a careful study of recently published data from research articles and some prominent Space Organizations like NASA and ESA. 

Air Pollution and Climate

According to the data published by W.H.O., it is estimated that 7 million people lose their lives each year worldwide due to outdoor air pollution and the urban population exposed to unhealthy air is more than 80%¹⁸. As far as India is concerned, the situation is severe if we consider the fact that air pollution causes around 16000 premature deaths and more than 350000 new cases of childhood asthma every year¹⁹. As the spread of the virus became largescale, the people restricted themselves to their homes and all industrial and travel activities came to a standstill in lockdown. A considerable improvement was seen in the air quality and a drop in the release of harmful emissions caused by these activities²⁰. The following factors are some of the most important components that determine the quality of air and hence they have been reviewed to determine the influence of Covid-19 on the quality of air and pollution.

Air Quality

Aerosols refer to tiny solid and liquid particles which are suspended in the air with the capability to cause reduced visibility and damage to the heart and lungs of living beings. The sources that lead to the aerosol suspension include to some extent natural sources such as volcanic eruptions, forest fires, and dust storms. But the main sources include human activities such as the burning of croplands and fossil fuels that contribute the maximum to aerosol levels and have great potential to cause damage to human health²¹. It is measured in terms of Aerosol optical depth (AOD) which simply indicates the extent to which direct sunlight is obstructed from reaching the ground by the tiny aerosol particles. An aerosol depth or thickness of value less than or equal to 0.1 indicates a clean atmosphere whereas a value greater than 0.4 indicates a hazy condition²².

It was on March 25, 2020 when the Indian Government placed 135 million citizens under a nationwide lockdown which was further extended multiple times to counter the spread of coronavirus and the consequent drop in the aerosol levels was almost immediately evident. After just a week of reduced industrial activity and traffic caused by the government’s mandate, a 20-year low of aerosol optical depth (AOD) for that time of the year was observed by the NASA satellite sensors for the Northern Indian region as depicted in Figure 2. Similarly, time-averaged visual maps (Figure 3) plotted online for the months ranging from January to April on NASA’s GIOVANNI website by Verma et al.²³ also show a considerable decline in other air pollutants like NO2, SO2, and CO besides aerosol after the lockdown was imposed in India. The work of Dasgupta et al.²⁴ which is based on the study of 5 air pollutants (PM10, PM2.5, NO2, CO, and Ozone) during the initial lockdown days in India also confirms that lockdown is indeed positively related to better air quality in some of the most polluted cities of India like Delhi, Gurugram, Mumbai, Jalandhar Ahmedabad, Varanasi, Ghaziabad, and Jaipur.

Figure 2: AOD levels in Northern India for the period Jan 2020 to April 2020.   Click here to view Figure

Source: Patel²¹

Carbon Emissions

According to Hewage et al.²⁵, out of the 6 main Greenhouse gases (GHG) specified by the Kyoto Protocol that harmfully impacts the environment, carbon dioxide (CO2) is considered as the most significant contributor to climate change in the world. Heede²⁶ states that 80% of global carbon emissions are a result of urban human activities such as the combustion of fuel for power generation, transportation, construction, and industrial operations. 

Although the growth of renewable energy sources and sector in India coupled with the Indian economic slowdown since early 2019 played its part in bringing down the country’s year-on-year fall in CO2 emissions for the first time in 4 decades in 2020, the main factor that led to the yearly power generation growth and oil demand becoming weak was the compounding effect of the steps taken to the curb the spread of the virus. The national lockdown imposed by the Indian Government led to a fall in yearly oil consumption by around 18% in March 2020. Similarly, the drastic cut in India’s electricity demand as compared to the electricity demand of the years preceding the coronavirus pandemic is evident in Figure 4. As a result of these factors, the first yearly decline in four decades in CO2 emissions was registered in March 2020 when the emissions fell by 30m tonnes as shown in Figure 5 and by 30% in April 2020²⁷.

Figure 3: Time averaged visual maps of a) AOD, b) NO2, c) CO and d) SO2 corresponding to geographical domain of India with coordinates 8N°–35.5N° and 68E°–97E°.   Click here to view Figure

Source: Verma et al.²³ 

Figure 4: Steep fall in India’s electricity demand during national lockdown in March, 2020   Click here to view Figure

Source:  Myllyvirta et al.²⁷ 

Figure 5: Change in C02 emissions in India for the period 1966-2020   Click here to view Figure

Source: Myllyvirta et al.²⁷ 

Water Pollution and Marine Life

Millions of litres of agricultural and industrial waste is discarded into 55 minor, 14 major and hundreds of small rivers and water bodies in India out of which only a small proportion of about 10% of wastewater gets treated while the rest is discharged as it is into the water bodies. The main source of pollution of our rivers is the industrial waste and sewage that comes from big cities. Another significant water pollutant is the agricultural run-off which is the water that contains pesticides and fertilizers and drains into rivers from agricultural fields²⁸. Apart from the industrial and agricultural waste, India’s age-long religious and social practices such as cremation near the river banks, disposal of carcasses and ashes in rivers, mass bathing, and immersing offerings add to the pollution load of the rivers²⁹.

Jadhav³⁰ asserts that during the lockdown period, there was a noteworthy improvement in the water quality of major rivers of India. The main causes for this include the significantly less amount of industrial effluents discharged into the rivers during the lockdown and human-related factors like the reduction of cultural and religious activities on the banks of rivers in India³¹. The term water quality refers to the chemical, biological and physical features or characteristics of water which is measured by various water quality indices (WQI) based on several parameters like dissolved oxygen (DO), Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), and total coliform to determine the quality of water for human use and consumption³².

Due to the Covid-19 induced lockdown, one of the most significant and holiest rivers of India Ganga which is also considered one of the most polluted rivers in the world displayed a 40-50% improvement in water quality and became fit for drinking after decades. This was as per the parameter requirements specified by Uttar Pradesh Pollution Control Board³³ such as BOD (less than 2 mg/L), DO (more than 6 mg/L), Total Coliform Organism (less than 5000 per 100 ml), and pH (between 6.5-8.5 Range). What the government was unable to achieve for decades was made possible by Covid-19 Lockdown as Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and UPPCB data revealed decreased BOD levels for Ganga and Yamuna even in the most polluted stretches of both the rivers³⁴. 

Besides Ganga and Yamuna, the waters of minor rivers like Rapti and Saryu in city areas also became transparent as a result of lesser deposition of domestic and industrial waste³⁵. Based on the Water Quality Index (WQI) measured by CPCB, samples taken from Mithi river in Maharashtra gave a WQI rating of 51 and 58 during the lockdown which corresponds to a Yellow or “non-polluted” category as compared to a rating of 25.7 and 37.4 before lockdown which comes under the Red or “badly polluted” category³⁰. The discharge of pollutants into Buddha nullah which is known to contain effluents from more than 2400 industrial units and carry them into the Sutlej River in Punjab reduced significantly during the lockdown. The positive effect was also witnessed in southern rivers of India as the water quality of River Cauvery and its tributaries like Lakshamanathirtha, Hemavati, Kabini, and Shimsha also returned to levels they used to be decades ago³¹.

As the water quality became better and nautical activity came to a halt, it consequently proved quite suitable to the aquatic life and marine species as well. Freshwater ecosystems appeared rejuvenated which is evident by a study carried out around the Haldia port cum industrial complex that highlighted the eco-restoration of the Ichthyoplankton community (larvae and eggs of the fish) due to lower amount of grease and oil pollution during lockdown³⁶. A similar investigation conducted at Diamond Harbour along Hooghly estuary revealed a greater amount of phytoplankton (microscopic marine algae which is fundamental to much of the aquatic food web) in April 2020. During the lockdown, reports began to surface about the rare spotting of Gangetic Dolphins from Meerut to Kolkata and even critically endangered species like Malabar Large Spotted Civet were found in the lanes of Kozhikode, Kerala³⁷. The South Asian River Ganges dolphins which had become critically endangered began to be spotted in the Ganga River after almost 30 years. A massive increase in the number of flamingos who migrate to the area every year was also witnessed by the residents of Navi Mumbai as the birds appeared in tens of thousands this time around¹⁷.

With commercial establishments and factories closed, commercial and fishing vessels anchored at ports, tourism subdued and people-free beaches have not only led to the recovery of fish stocks in the water bodies but have also reduced the trauma caused to marine creatures through noise pollution generated from nautical activities like shipping and powerful seismic air gun blasts which are used to find the location of deposits of oil and gas in deep waters. There are also lesser chances of injuries to sea creatures caused by entanglement and indigestion of hazardous plastic and other marine debris³⁴.

Downside of Covid-19 in relation to the Environment

Although the Covid-19 scenario has benefitted the environment and the ecosystem in the short run, the same cannot be claimed with confidence for the long term. Apart from the positive impact that the coronavirus pandemic has caused on the environment, there is a negative aspect to it as well. The use of cleansing and sanitizing materials and substances along with medical supplies which were earlier used sparingly have multiplied manifold. The coronavirus has incited such fear and uncertainty among the people that they began retorting to activities like hoarding, stockpiling, and overuse of resources. This has further created problems of excess waste, improper handling, and inappropriate disposal. The lockdowns and their repeated extensions to counter the spread of the virus has resulted in breaking the backbones of even some of the strongest economies of the world. The demand and supply networks and chains have collapsed even for some of the most essential commodities. The challenge possessed by the question that how the countries will recover after the pandemic gets over is magnanimous.

Contrary to the basic idea behind the concept of ‘Green’ 

The concept of ‘Green’ basically revolves around all initiatives undertaken with the intent of reducing pollution and carbon emissions on the planet. These initiatives can be broadly classified into three types of activities or strategies i.e. Reduce, Reuse and Recycle which are primarily needed to lessen the burden of excessive human activity³⁸. However, the scenario so far during this Covid-19 pandemic in some cases is quite opposite or contrary to these 3 basic principles of Green which have the potential to cause long-term repercussions as far as environmental sustainability is concerned. Instead of Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle, what we are seeing is the Overuse, Single use, and Disposal of resources respectively as depicted in Figure 6.

A significant rise has been seen in the use of soaps, hand rubs, and hand sanitizers containing isopropanol, alcohol, and disinfectants which were previously utilized sparingly. Large quantities of disinfectants like chlorine, hypochlorous acids, and also sodium hypochlorite which is known to be very toxic to the microorganisms and the environment are being used in almost every place with human activity to kill the virus⁸. Antibacterial soaps that contain hazardous chemicals like triclocarban and triclosan³⁹ are also being used extensively. These chemicals do not get degraded easily and also represents around 60% of the mass of drugs normally found in the mud or sludge of sewage or treatment plant of wastewater which poses a great threat to aquatic life and fauna⁴⁰.

Figure 6. Impact of Covid-19 on the usage of resources   Click here to view figure

Source: Author

Excessive Use and not Reduce

Qiu et al.⁴¹ pointed out that it is highly probable that pandemic-induced lockdowns will cause people to likely engage in panic buying and excessive hoarding of even the most essential commodities despite their regular supply being assured by various states. This was evident in India as Bhushan⁴² reported a significant change in the buying pattern of consumers who usually bought 1-2 kg of rice were now purchasing 4-5 kgs of rice during the initial outbreak of the virus. This pandemic triggered panic purchase of not only food items but also of things like cleaning goods and products, toilet papers, gloves, disinfectants, alcohol-based sanitizers, and face masks⁴³. The fear of the novel Covid-19 was such in India that the recommended protective gear like disinfectants, sanitizers, and masks were rapidly reported out of stock in shops and outlets⁴⁴. The comparative rise of stock outages of rice and disinfectants in India and select countries is shown in Tables 1 & 2 for pre lockdown period (random week in January 2020) and lockdown week respectively (the week in March 2020 in which national lockdown was first imposed in India).

Table 1: Comparative Stock Outage of Rice between January and March 2020 in India and select countries

Prepared by: Author; Data Source: Sareen et al.⁴⁵

Table 2: Comparative Stock Outage of Disinfectants between January and March 2020 in India and select countries

Prepared by: Author; Data Source: Sareen et al.⁴⁵

Single Use and not reuse

In the wake of the highly transmissible capability of the coronavirus and health concerns related to it, people are opting for the single-use and not reuse of products and items made of plastic which is against the restrictions imposed by many countries regarding its use. Most of the gear being worn around by people to protect themselves from the coronavirus such as PPE kits, medical equipment, face masks, and gloves is made from plastic and is being carelessly disposed off by people after a single use. Many shopkeepers and grocery stores have disallowed customers from bringing their own reusable carry bags and serving them products in single-use plastic bags in fear of contamination from the virus⁴⁶.

Disposal and not Recycle

Besides the excessive and single use of commodities by people during Covid-19, the pandemic has also resulted in the recycling industry being affected adversely due to the lockdowns and social distancing measures adopted by governments and institutions. The competitiveness of recycled plastic with virgin plastic has been negatively impacted due to the fall in the price and demand for oil⁴⁷. Recycling activities have also been disrupted in developing nations that are dependent on foreign technologies for recycling their waste and hence the majority of the generated waste in Covid-19 is being disposed off instead of being properly recycled⁴³.

Excessive Waste and Waste Management

Protective and containment measures adopted to restrict the spread of coronavirus have influenced the consumption patterns of consumers by raising the demand for household and medical products like food items, groceries, sanitizers, face masks and shields, multivitamins, soaps, disinfectants, and other cleaning products. This rise in demand has, in turn, led to a surge in domestic household and medical waste being generated creating further problems regarding its environmentally friendly handling and disposal. 

The study of Bhakta et al.⁴⁸ highlights that panic buying along with unnecessary stocking of items with low shelf life and hoarding of perishable food items without cold storage facilities will increase the generation of domestic waste significantly. The study also points out that the surge in online orders of food and groceries due to lockdowns is likely to give rise to more packaging (plastic and paper) waste. According to W.H.O.⁴⁹, healthcare waste or biomedical waste refers to the waste and by-products generated by healthcare centres and facilities, mortuaries, research centres, and labs. The biomedical waste generated by a Coronavirus patient per day is about 14 kg more than a normal patient³⁷. Medical experts have estimated a 15 times increase in biomedical waste in India from 0.3-1 kg waste per bed per day in a normal situation to 4.5-15kg waste per bed per day in the Covid-19 scenario. For instance, In a particular week in 2020 (13-18 May 2020) in the state of Kerala alone, a massive 2-2.5 tons/day which is equivalent to a 13000 kg/day increase in biomedical waste was reported⁵⁰. Similarly, a surge by double in health care waste from around 550-600 kg/day to 1000 kg/day was observed during the first phase of lockdown in Ahmedabad city in March-April, 2020⁵¹.

With the recycling activities blemished due to lockdowns and restricted transportation provisions, this sudden rise in waste generated has resulted in putting an enormous burden on the already limited recycling capability in India and is turning the situation into a waste management nightmare. Singh et al.⁵² state that India produces 550 tons of healthcare waste approximately in a normal scenario which is treated by a meagre number of Common Bio-Medical Waste Treatment Facilities (CBMWTF) and captive incinerators which are 198 and 225 respectively. This limited capacity has been pushed to the limits by the outbreak as a report by Central Pollution Control Board⁵³ highlighted that most of the states in India namely Delhi, Rajasthan, Bihar, Assam, Uttarakhand, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Goa, and Kerala ran out of capacity in May 2020 to treat the growing quantity of biomedical waste and 70-90% of the states’ CBMWTF capacity was already utilized. 

The duration for which this outbreak of coronavirus will continue cannot be estimated with certainty. This difficult situation of waste disposal and management in India can quickly go out of hand if the novel coronavirus (which has already evolved into many variants) induced pandemic continues for a few more months and the trend in the amount of waste generated remains the same as it has been for the past one year.

Future Challenges 

There is no doubt that coronavirus and related lockdowns have provided much needed relief to our surrounding environment in the short term but it has also mounted some serious long-term adverse challenges on the ecosystem which need to be dealt with in the coming future. It is important to point out that short-term favourable circumstances for the environment resulting from lesser human activity cannot undo the years of harm done to it through excessive human trespassing and activity. Also, the enormous pressure under which the environment and the limited resources will be placed under once things get back to normal in order to cover the losses that occurred during this pandemic is not hard to imagine. It will require extraordinary efforts and careful holistic integrated planning to sustain the ‘Green Effect’ of Covid-19 that has been observed over the environment.  We have summarized some of the imminent challenges that lie ahead for us and their possible solutions as shown in Table 3.

Table 3: Potential Environmental Challenges of Covid-19 and their Possible Solutions

Source: Author

Conclusion

This study has strived to present a balanced but critical view as far as the environmental outcomes of Covid-19 are concerned. Contribution to the existing literature has been attempted by pointing out both the short-term and long-term reactions of the ecosystem to the coronavirus pandemic. The existing literature lacks strategies and solutions to prepare in advance for the post-pandemic era and therefore we have briefly tried to cover the research gap by recommending feasible solutions to the prime challenges that can disrupt India’s path to recovery once the Covid-19 outbreak comes to end. 

Finally, this research work has certain limitations. The study of the positive impacts of Covid-19 in our research is mostly restricted to the first national lockdown period announced on 24th March 2020 for 21 days as the subsequent lockdowns were not pan-India and varied in measures across the states depending upon the severity of the situation in each state. Future research can focus on and compare the environmental effect in subsequent lockdown periods and even between different states. Also, this research is primarily based on secondary sources as this research was conducted when pandemic-related restrictions were in place and imposed on all activities including travel to minimize the spread of Covid-19. Once these restrictions are fully relaxed, future research based on primary data can provide further insights.

Acknowledgment 

The authors would like to thank Enviro Research Publishers for granting the final approval to publish their research manuscript titled “Environmental Footprints of Covid-19 in India: Short term ‘Green Effect’ but long run Pitfall” in the Current World Environment (CWE) Journal. Thank You.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Funding Sources

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

References

1. Tyrrell DAJ, Bynoe ML, Obst DRCOG. Cultivation of Novel Type of Common-cold Virus in Organ Cultures. 1965;(June).
   CrossRef
2. P. Velavan T, G. Meyer C. The COVID?19 epidemic _ Enhanced Reader.pdf. Published online 2020.
   CrossRef
3. Shereen MA, Khan S, Kazmi A, Bashir N, Siddique R. COVID-19 infection: Origin, transmission, and characteristics of human coronaviruses. J Adv Res. 2020;24:91-98. doi:10.1016/j.jare.2020.03.005
   CrossRef
4. Ma X, Ph D, Wang D, et al. A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019. Published online 2020:727-733. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2001017
   CrossRef
5. World Health Organization. World Health Organization . Internet resource in English, Spanish, French, Arabic, Russian, Chinese | LIS - Health Information Locator | ID: lis-46952 Responsible library: BR1.1. Published online 2021:46952.
6. Singhal T. A Review of Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19). 2020;87(April):281-286.
   CrossRef
7. Chan JF, Kok K, Zhu Z, et al. Genomic characterization of the 2019 novel human-pathogenic coronavirus isolated from a patient with atypical pneumonia after visiting Wuhan. Published online 2020. doi:10.1080/22221751.2020.1719902
   CrossRef
8. Amit A, Vartika K, Ankit J, Ayush D, Chandan L, Kuldeep D. Environmental impact of COVID ? 19 pandemic?: more negatives than positives. Environ Sustain. 2021;(0123456789). doi:10.1007/s42398-021-00159-9
   CrossRef
9. Zhou P, Yang X, Wang X, et al. A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature. 2020;579(March). doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7
   CrossRef
10. Adnan M, Khan S, Kazmi A, Bashir N, Siddique R. COVID-19 infection?: Emergence , transmission , and characteristics of human coronaviruses. J Adv Res. 2020;24:91-98. doi:10.1016/j.jare.2020.03.005
    CrossRef
11. Kulshrestha UC. COVID-19 Air Transmission and Precautions. Curr World Environ 2021;16(1):01-03. doi:10.12944/cwe.16.1.01
    CrossRef
12. Han G. Spotlight Pangolins Harbor Coronaviruses. Trends Microbiol. 2019;28(7):515-517. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2020.04.001
    CrossRef
13. World Health Organization. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19). 2020;(October).
14. Mishra M, Kulshrestha UC. A brief review on changes in air pollution scenario over south asia during covid-19 lockdown. Aerosol Air Qual Res. 2021;21(4):1-10. doi:10.4209/aaqr.200541
    CrossRef
15. Kumar N, Jitendra A. COVID-19 and importance of environmental sustainability. Environ Sustain. 2020;3(2):117-119. doi:10.1007/s42398-020-00107-z
    CrossRef
16. Chandra Kulshrestha U. Environmental Changes during - COVID-19 Lockdown: Future Implications. Curr World Environ. 2020;15(1):01-04. doi:10.12944/cwe.15.1.01
    CrossRef
17. Ghosh A, Nundy S, Mallick TK. How India is dealing with COVID-19 pandemic. Sensors Int. 2020;1(June):100021. doi:10.1016/j.sintl.2020.100021
    CrossRef
18. World Health Organization. Air pollution. WHO. Published 2021. Accessed August 10, 2022. https://www.who.int/health-topics/air-pollution#tab=tab_1
    CrossRef
19. Myllyvirta L, Dahiya S. Air quality improvements due to COVID 19 lock-down In India – Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air. Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air. Published 2020. Accessed August 10, 2022. https://energyandcleanair.org/air-quality-improvements-due-to-covid-19-lock-down-in-india/
20. KULSHRESTHA UC. `New Normal’ of COVID-19: Need of New Environmental Standards. Curr World Environ. 2020;15(2):151-153. doi:10.12944/cwe.15.2.01
    CrossRef
21. Patel K. Airborne Particle Levels Plummet in Northern India. NASA Earth Observatory. Published 2020. Accessed August 10, 2022. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/146596/airborne-particle-levels-plummet-in-northern-india
22. NOAA Global Monitoring Laboratory. SURFRAD Aerosol Optical Depth. GML - ESRL. Published 2021. Accessed August 10, 2022. https://gml.noaa.gov/grad/surfrad/aod/
23. Verma RL, Kamyotra JS. Impacts of COVID-19 on Air Quality in India. 2020;21(4).
    CrossRef
24. Dasgupta P, Srikanth K. Reduced air pollution during COVID-19?: Learnings for sustainability from Indian Cities. Glob Transitions. 2020;2:271-282. doi:10.1016/j.glt.2020.10.002
    CrossRef
25. Hewage L, Willhelm U, Mesthrige JW. Global Research on Carbon Emissions?: A Scientometric Review. 2019;2:1-25.
26. Heede R. Tracing anthropogenic carbon dioxide and methane emissions to fossil fuel and cement producers , 1854 – 2010. Published online 2014:229-241. doi:10.1007/s10584-013-0986-y
    CrossRef
27.   Myllyvirta L, Dahiya S. Analysis: India’s CO2 Emissions Fall for First Time in Four Decades amid Coronavirus.; 2020.
28. Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG). Report No. 21 of 2011-12. 2011;(21).
29. Rakhecha P. Water environment pollution with its impact on human diseases in India. 2020;4(4):152-158. doi:10.15406/ijh.2020.04.00240
    CrossRef
30. Jadhav VR. Journal of Chemistry , Environmental Sciences and its Applications COVID-19 Era?: What ’ s Impact of the Lockdown on India ’ s Environment?? 2020;7(1):1-6. doi:10.15415/jce.2020.71001
    CrossRef
31. Lokhandwala S, Gautam P. Indirect impact of COVID-19 on environment: A brief study in Indian context. 2020;(January).
    CrossRef
32. Khan R, Saxena A, Shukla S, Sekar S, Goel P. Effect of COVID-19 lockdown on the water quality index of River Gomti , India , with potential hazard of faecal-oral transmission. Published online 2021.
    CrossRef
33. Uttar Pradesh Pollution Control Board. River Water Quality. UPPCB. Published 2021. Accessed August 10, 2022. http://www.uppcb.com/river_quality.htm
34. Shah IKDSSS. COVID ? 19 pandemic and its positive impacts on environment?: an updated review. Int J Environ Sci Technol. 2021;18(2):521-530. doi:10.1007/s13762-020-03021-3
    CrossRef
35. Verma AK, Prakash S. Review Paper IMPACT OF COVID-19 ON ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIETY. 2020;09(5):7352-7363.
36. Pal N, Barman P, Das S, Zaman S, Mitra A. Status of brackish water phytoplankton during COVID-19 lockdown phase. Published online 2020.
37. Roy N, Chaube R, Article R. Environmental impact of covid-19 pandemic in india. Published online 2021.
    CrossRef
38. Tam H. Green management?: Road to sustainability & corporate efficiency. 2016;2:586-590.
39. Yueh M, Tukey RH. Triclosan?: A Widespread Environmental Toxicant with Many Biological Effects. Published online 2016. doi:10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-010715-103417
    CrossRef
40. Chalew TEA, Halden RU. ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE OF AQUATIC AND TERRESTRIAL BIOTA TO TRICLOSAN AND TRICLOCARBAN 1. 2009;45(1).
    CrossRef
41. Qiu J, Shen B, Zhao M, Wang Z, Xie B, Xu Y. A nationwide survey of psychological distress among Chinese people in the COVID-19 epidemic?: implications and policy recommendations. Published online 2020:19-21. doi:10.1136/gpsych-2020-100213
    CrossRef
42. Bhushan R. Consumers stock up on FMCG bulk packs due to Covid-19 outbreak - The Economic Times. The Economic Times. Published 2020. Accessed August 10, 2022. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/cons-products/consumers-stock-up-on-fmcg-bulk-packs-due-to-covid-19-outbreak/articleshow/74741539.cms
43. Sarkodie SA, Owusu PA. Impact of meteorological factors on COVID-19 pandemic?: Evidence from top 20 countries with confirmed cases. Environ Res. 2020;191:110101. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2020.110101
    CrossRef
44. Das S. Govt mulls campaign to halt panic buying amid coronavirus outbreak | Business Standard News. Business Standard. Published 2020. Accessed August 10, 2022.
     https://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/govt-mulls-campaign-to-halt-panic-buying-amid-coronavirus-outbreak-120031700070_1.html
45. Sareen A, Pandit A, Jain A, et al. Coronavirus Effect on Indian FMCG Industries and Services - Euromonitor.com. Euromonitor International. Published 2020. Accessed August 10, 2022. https://www.euromonitor.com/article/coronavirus-effect-on-indian-fmcg-industries-and-services
46. Tenenbaum L. The Amount Of Plastic Waste Is Surging Because Of The Coronavirus Pandemic. FORBES. Published 2020. Accessed August 10, 2022. https://www.forbes.com/sites/lauratenenbaum/2020/04/25/plastic-waste-during-the-time-of-covid-19/?sh=5a5967457e48
47. Kaza S. Waste workers are protecting our communities during COVID-19. World Bank. Published 2020. Accessed August 10, 2022. https://blogs.worldbank.org/sustainablecities/waste-workers-are-protecting-our-communities-during-covid-19
48. Bhakta H, Raja K, Shankar VR, Prakash V. Resources , Conservation & Recycling Challenges , opportunities , and innovations for effective solid waste management during and post COVID-19 pandemic. Resour Conserv Recycl. 2020;162(May):105052. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105052
    CrossRef
49. World Health Organization. Health-care waste. WHO. Published 2018. Accessed August 10, 2022. https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/health-care-waste
50. Goswami M, Goswami PJ, Nautiyal S, Prakash S. Challenges and actions to the environmental management of Bio-Medical Waste during COVID-19 pandemic in India Research article review?: Heliyon. 2021;7(February):e06313. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06313
    CrossRef
51. Rume T, Islam SMD. Heliyon Environmental effects of COVID-19 pandemic and potential strategies of sustainability. Heliyon. 2020;6(June):e04965. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04965
    CrossRef
52. Singh A, Unnikrishnan S, Dongre S. Biomedical Waste Management in India?: Awareness and Novel Approaches. Published online 2019:10089-10091. doi:10.26717/BJSTR.2019.13.002424
    CrossRef
53. Central Pollution Control Board. Scientific Disposal of BioMedical Waste Arising out of Covid-19 Treatment Compliance of BMWM Rules, 2016.; 2020.